Halloween party ideas 2015
Showing posts with label Health Articles. Show all posts
Tweet Share Share Share Share Share

1/04/2014




The definition of open heart surgery has become confusing because new procedures are being done on the heart through smaller cuts. Some new procedures are being done with the heart still beating.

Open heart surgery is any surgery where the chest is opened and surgery is done on the heart muscle, valves, arteries, or other parts of the heart (such as the aorta). The term "open" means that the chest is "cut" open.
Open Heart Surgery is one of the many conditions that affect Americans. Following are some pictures related to Open Heart Surgery:





Clinical trials aiming to study or treat Open Heart Surgery are happening all over America. You can check for the clinical trials currently active to find new treatments for Open Heart Surgery. We can beat this disease together!

 
 





Short description:
A heart-lung machine is usually used during open heart surgery. While the surgeon works on the heart, the machine helps send oxygen-rich blood to the brain and other organs.

  • During endoscopic surgery, your surgeon makes one to four small holes in your chest. Then your surgeon uses special instruments and a camera to perform the surgery.
  • During robot-assisted valve surgery, the surgeon makes two to four tiny cuts (about 1/2 inch to 3/4 inch) in your chest. The surgeon uses a special computer to control robotic arms during the surgery. The surgeon sees a three-dimensional view of the surgery on the computer.
  • The development of cardiac surgery and cardiopulmonary bypass techniques has reduced the mortality rates of these surgeries to relatively low ranks. For instance, repairs of congenital heart defects are currently estimated to have 4–6% mortality rates. A major concern with cardiac surgery is the incidence of neurological damage. Stroke occurs in 2–3% of all people undergoing cardiac surgery, and is higher in patients at risk for stroke.[citation needed] A more subtle constellation of neurocognitive deficits attributed to cardiopulmonary bypass is known as postperfusion syndrome, sometimes called "pumphead". The symptoms of postperfusion syndrome were initially felt to be permanent, but were shown to be transient with no permanent neurological impairment.
  • Hospital readmissions often occur in cardiac surgery patients; in 2010, approximately 18.5% of patients who had a heart valve procedure in the United States were readmitted within 30 days of the initial hospitalization.

    In order to assess the performance of surgical units and individual surgeons, a popular risk model has been created called the EuroSCORE. This takes a number of health factors from a patient and using precalculated logistic regression coefficients attempts to give a percentage chance of survival to discharge. Within the UK this EuroSCORE was used to give a breakdown of all the centres for cardiothoracic surgery and to give some indication of whether the units and their individuals surgeons performed within an acceptable range. The results are available on the CQC website.

Read more »
Tweet Share Share Share Share Share

11/27/2013
Pertussis.jpgCommunicable whooping cough  is a highly contagious bacterial disease caused by Bordetella pertussis. In some countries, this disease is called the 100 days' cough or cough of 100 days.The medical term for whooping cough is pertussis.

The condition usually begins with a persistent dry and irritating cough that progresses to intense bouts of coughing. These are followed by a distinctive 'whooping' noise, which is how the condition gets its name.
Other symptoms include a runny nose, raised temperature and vomiting after coughing.
The coughing can last for around three months (another name for whooping cough is the ‘hundred day cough’).
Read more about the symptoms of whooping cough.
Whooping cough is caused by a bacterium called Bordetella pertussis, which can be passed from person to person through droplets in the air from coughing and sneezing.

Prevention And Management:
whooping caughPeople with pertussis are infectious from the beginning of the catarrhal stage (runny nose, sneezing, low-grade fever, symptoms of the common cold) through the third week after the onset of paroxysms (multiple, rapid coughs) or until 5 days after the start of effective antimicrobial treatment.A reasonable guideline is to treat people age >1 year within 3 weeks of cough onset and infants age <1 year and pregnant women (especially near-term) within 6 weeks of cough onset. If the patient is diagnosed late, antibiotics will not alter the course of the illness and, even without antibiotics, the patient should no longer be spreading pertussis. Antibiotics decrease the duration of infectiousness and thus prevent spread
Prevention by vaccination is of primary importance given the seriousness of the disease in children. Although treatment is of little direct benefit to the person infected, antibiotics are recommended because they shorten the duration of infectiousness. It is currently estimated that the disease annually affects 48.5 million people worldwide, resulting in nearly 295,000 deaths.

Whooping cough vaccination:

In the UK, all pregnant women are offered vaccination against whooping cough when they are 28-38 weeks pregnant. Getting vaccinated while you’re pregnant could help to protect your baby from developing whooping cough in its first few weeks of life.Children are vaccinated against whooping cough with the 5-in-1 vaccine at two, three and four months of age, and again with the 4-in-1 pre-school booster before starting school at the age of about three years and four months.Although the number of cases of whooping cough has fallen dramatically since vaccination began, it is still possible for children to get the infection, so having the vaccination is vital.The more people vaccinated against whooping cough the less chance there is of them passing on the infection to a young baby in which it could cause serious, and possibly fatal, complications.The effectiveness of the whooping cough vaccination may fade over time, meaning it is possible to develop the condition during adulthood if you were previously vaccinated.

Read more »
Tweet Share Share Share Share Share

11/21/2013
Glaucoma is a term describing a group of ocular disorders with multi-factorial etiology united by a clinically characteristic intraocular pressure-associated optic neuropathy. This can permanently damage vision in the affected eye(s) and lead to blindness if left untreated. It is normally associated with increased fluid pressure in the eye (aqueous humour). The term "ocular hypertension" is used for people with consistently raisedintraocular pressure (IOP) without any associated optic nerve damage. Conversely, the term 'normal tension' or 'low tension' glaucoma is used for those with optic nerve damage and associated visual field loss, but normal or low IOP.Glaucoma can be roughly divided into two main categories, "open-angle" and "closed-angle" (or "angle closure") glaucoma. The angle refers to the area between the iris and cornea, through which fluid must flow to escape via the trabecular meshwork. Closed-angle glaucoma can appear suddenly and is often painful; visual loss can progress quickly, but the discomfort often leads patients to seek medical attention before permanent damage occurs. Open-angle, chronic glaucoma tends to progress at a slower rate and patients may not notice they have lost vision until the disease has progressed significantly.Glaucoma is the second leading cause of blindness in the U.S. It most often occurs in people over age 40, although a congenital or infantile form of glaucoma exists. People with a family history of glaucoma, African Americans over the age of 40, and Hispanics over the age of 60 are at an increased risk of developing glaucoma. Other risk factors include thinner corneas, chronic eye inflammation, and using medications that increase the pressure in the eyes.
Diagnosis:
Screening for glaucoma is usually performed as part of a standard eye examination performed by optometrists, orthoptists and ophthalmologists. Testing for glaucoma should include measurements of the intraocular pressure via tonometry, changes in size or shape of the eye, anterior chamber angle examination or gonioscopy, and examination of the optic nerve to look for any visible damage to it, or change in the cup-to-disc ratio and also rim appearance and vascular change. A formal visual field test should be performed. The retinal nerve fiber layer can be assessed with imaging techniques such as optical coherence tomography, scanning laser polarimetry, and/or scanning laser ophthalmoscopy.
Management:
The modern goals of glaucoma management are to avoid glaucomatous damage and nerve damage, and preserve visual field and total quality of life for patients, with minimal side effects.This requires appropriate diagnostic techniques and follow-up examinations, and judicious selection of treatments for the individual patient. Although intraocular pressure is only one of the major risk factors for glaucoma, lowering it via various pharmaceuticals and/or surgical techniques is currently the mainstay of glaucoma treatment.
Vascular flow and neurodegenerative theories of glaucomatous optic neuropathy have prompted studies on various neuroprotective therapeutic strategies, including nutritional compounds, some of which may be regarded by clinicians as safe for use now, while others are on trial.
Read more »
Tweet Share Share Share Share Share

11/20/2013
The respiratory system (or ventilatory system) is a biological system consisting  of specific organs and structures used for the process of respiration in an organism. The  respiratory system is involved in the intake and exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between an organism and the environment.

The human respiratory system is a series of organs responsible for taking in oxygen and expelling carbon dioxide. In terrestrial animals, this is accomplished by breathing. The human body needs oxygen to sustain itself. A complete lack of oxygen is known as anoxia and a decrease in oxygen is known as hypoxia. After four to six minutes brain cells without oxygen brain cells are destroyed and an extended period of hypoxia leads to brain damage and ultimately death.
In air-breathing vertebrates, respiration takes place in the respiratory organs called lungs. The passage of air into and out of the lungs to supply the body with oxygen (and expel carbon dioxide) is called breathing. In humans and other mammals, the anatomical features of the respiratory system include include trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, lungs, and diaphragm. Molecules of oxygen and carbon dioxide are passively exchanged, by diffusion, between the gaseous external environment and the blood. This exchange process occurs in the alveoli air sacs in the lungs.
In humans, the average rate of breathing is dependent upon age. Newborns up to 6 weeks take 30 to 60 breaths per minute, while the average resting respiratory rate for adults is 12 to 20 breaths per minute. Physical exertion also has an impact on respiratory rate and healthy adults can average 45 breaths per minute during strenuous exercise.

Respiratory system complete en.svg


In fish and many invertebrates, respiration takes place through the gills. Other animals, such as insects, have respiratory systems with very simple anatomical features, and in amphibians even the skin plays a vital role in gas exchange. Plants also have respiratory systems but the directionality of gas exchange can be opposite to that in animals. The respiratory system in plants also includes anatomical features such as holes on the undersides of leaves known as stomata.





The pathway:     

  1.Air enters the nostrils

  2.passes through the nasopharynx,

  3.the oral pharynx

  4.through the glottis

  5.into the trachea

   6.into the right and left bronchi, which branches and rebranches into

   7.bronchioles, each of which terminates in a cluster of

    8.Alveoli.

Read more »
Tweet Share Share Share Share Share

11/15/2013
aGynophobia is a fear of women, mostly encompassed by men. Gynophobia more specifically is the fear or hatred (or both) of women in general, and is usually embodied by men who have the irrational notion that women are meant to cause harm and humiliation in a man's life. Men who suffer from Gynophobia don't trust women of all sorts, and tend to have "mother hating" issues as well.
showing gynophobiaThis unfortunate fear for men typically stems from abandonment or abuse from their mother in childhood. Occasionally, gynophobia is acquired later in life by a woman putting a man down so severely and abusing his manhood that it creates itself into a genuine fear of rejection and humiliation of all women. However the fear of women comes to be in men, it is dangerous in that it not only keeps a man from encountering a normal relationship with a woman, but it can lend itself to extreme hatred for all women as well.Men who suffer from gynophobia typically view women as a threat- either physically or emotionally. Men who fear women may wish to not be around them in a sexual sense, as in a man's eyes, all women are unclean, promiscuous, users, and have whorish behavior. Women to men who suffer from gynophobia can be liars, cheaters, and sure to abandon the man at one point. It's quite easy for a fear of women to grow into an all-out hatred in this respect.The word caligynephobia is also coined to mean the fear of beautiful women.For the latter one, the expression venustraphobia is also used. In many cases, it may also be rooted in social phobia or social anxiety disorder

Therapy for gynophobia is key, as a man hoarding such extreme irrationalities toward women prevents him from having a decent relationship with a woman, gaining trust in a woman, and keeps him from being able to encounter women in an equal setting in the workplace or other areas. Unlike the fear of men for women, where their fathers, male siblings, and other close male family members are considered safe, for men, the fear and hatred of women is usually most targeted at their own mothers, sisters, and even wives. Many men who suffer from gynophobia are deemed "woman haters". And in many cases, this is true.
The list of treatments mentioned in various sources for Gynophobia includes the following list. Always seek professional medical advice about any treatment or change in treatment plans.
Read more »
Tweet Share Share Share Share Share

11/14/2013
A red ribbon in the shape of a bowHuman immunodeficiency virus infection / acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) is a disease of the human immune system caused by infection with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). During the initial infection, a person may experience a brief period of influenza-like illness. This is typically followed by a prolonged period without symptoms. As the illness progresses, it interferes more and more with the immune system, making the person much more likely to get infections, including opportunistic infections and tumors that do not usually affect people who have working immune systems.We can summerise HIV as following points: 
  
  • HIV is the infection that causes AIDS.
  • HIV has few or no symptoms for up to 10 years or more before symptoms of     AIDS develop.
  • There is no cure for HIV/AIDS, but treatment is available.
  • HIV can be spread during sex play.
  • Latex and female condoms offer very good protection against HIV.

    • Mode Of transmission(MOT):
    A diagram of a human torso labelled with the most common symptoms of AIDS
    HIV is transmitted primarily via unprotected sexual intercourse (including anal and even oral sex), contaminated blood transfusions, hypodermic needles, and from mother to child during pregnancy, delivery, or breastfeeding.Some bodily fluids, such as saliva and tears, do not transmit HIV. we can also conclude that HIV is transmitted by three main routes: sexual contact, exposure to infected body fluids or tissues, and from mother to child during pregnancy, delivery, or breastfeeding (known as vertical transmission). There is no risk of acquiring HIV if exposed to feces, nasal secretions, saliva, sputum, sweat, tears, urine, or vomit unless these are contaminated with blood. It is possible to be co-infected by more than one strain of HIV—a condition known as HIV superinfection
     

    Prevention:
    Prevention of HIV infection, primarily through safe sex and needle-exchange
    programs, is a key strategy to control the spread of the disease. There is no cure or vaccine; however, antiretroviral treatment can slow the course of the disease and may lead to a near-normal life expectancy. While antiretroviral treatment reduces the risk of death and complications from the disease, these medications are expensive and may be associated with side effects.
    Causative agent:
    HIV belongs to a group of retroviruses called lentiviruses. The genome of retroviruses is made of RNA (ribonucleic acid), and each virus has two single chains of RNA; for replication, the virus needs a host cell, and the RNA must first be transcribed into DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), which is done with the enzyme reverse transcriptase.
    HIV infects mainly the CD4+ lymphocytes (T cells), but also to a lesser degree monocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells (these cells are also CD4+ cells). Once infected, the cell turns into an HIV-replicating cell and loses its function in the human immune system.

    Basic structure of the virus:
    A circular structure with purple structures coming out of it and a number of objects inside the circle representing different aspects of the virus- The viral envelope, the outer coat of the virus, consists of two layers of lipids; different proteins are embedded in the viral envelope, forming "spikes" consisting of the outer glycoprotein (gp) 120 and the transmembrane gp41. The lipid membrane is borrowed from the host cell during the budding process (formation of new particles). gp120 is needed to attach to the host cell, and gp41 is critical for the cell fusion process.
    - The HIV matrix proteins (consisting of the p17 protein), lie between the envelope and core.
    - The viral core, contains the viral capsule protein p24 which surrounds two single strands of HIV RNA and the enzymes needed for HIV replication, such as reverse transcriptase, protease, ribonuclease, and integrase; out of the nine virus genes, there are three, namely gag, pol and env, that contain the information needed to make structural proteins for new virus particles.

     






    Read more »
    Tweet Share Share Share Share Share

    11/13/2013
    Cancer is a condition where cells in a specific part of the body grow and reproduce uncontrollably. The cancerous cells can invade and destroy surrounding healthy tissue, including organs.it is class of diseases characterized by out-of-control cell growth. Cancer  known medically as a malignant neoplasm, is a broad group of diseases involving unregulated cell growth. In cancer, cells divide and grow uncontrollably, forming malignant tumors, and invading nearby parts of the body. The cancer may also spread to more distant parts of the body through the lymphatic system or bloodstream. Not all tumors are cancerous; benign tumors do not invade neighboring tissues and do not spread throughout the body. There are over 200 different known cancers that affect humans.The causes of cancer are diverse, complex, and only partially understood . 

     What Causes Cancer?
    Many things are known to increase the risk of cancer, including tobaccouse, dietary factors, certain infections, exposure to radiation, lack of physical activity, obesity, and environmental pollutants.These factors can directly damage genes or combine with existing genetic faults within cells to cause cancerous mutations. Approximately 5–10% of cancers can be traced directly to inherited genetic defects. Many cancers could be prevented by not smoking, eating more vegetables, fruits and whole grains, eating less meat and refined carbohydrates, maintaining a healthy weight, exercising, minimizing sunlight exposure, and being vaccinated against some infectious diseases.

    Main Factors Responsible for Causing Cancer Are :
      1.  Chemicals 
      3.  Infection
      4.  Radiation
      5.  Heredity
      7.  Hormones

    What are the symptoms of cancer ?
    Cancer symptoms are quite varied and depend on where the cancer is located, where it has spread, and how big the tumor is. Some cancers can be felt or seen through the skin - a lump on the breast or testicle can be an indicator of cancer in those locations. Skin cancer (melanoma) is often noted by a change in a wart or mole on the skin. Some oral cancers present white patches inside the mouth or white spots on the tongue.
    Other cancers have symptoms that are less physically apparent. Some brain tumors tend to present symptoms early in the disease as they affect important cognitive functions. Pancreas cancers are usually too small to cause symptoms until they cause pain by pushing against nearby nerves or interfere with liver function to cause a yellowing of the skin and eyes called jaundice. Symptoms also can be created as a tumor grows and pushes against organs and blood vessels. For example, colon cancers lead to symptoms such as constipation, diarrhea, and changes in stool size. Bladder or prostate cancers cause changes in bladder function such as more frequent or infrequent urination.
    As cancer cells use the body's energy and interfere with normal hormone function, it is possible to present symptoms such as fever, fatigue, excessive sweating, anemia, and unexplained weight loss. However, these symptoms are common in several other maladies as well. For example, coughing and hoarseness can point to lung or throat cancer as well as several other conditions.
    When cancer spreads, or metastasizes, additional symptoms can present themselves in the newly affected area. Swollen or enlarged lymph nodes are common and likely to be present early. If cancer spreads to the brain, patients may experience vertigo, headaches, or seizures. Spreading to the lungs may cause coughing and shortness of breath. In addition, the liver may become enlarged and cause jaundice and bones can become painful, brittle, and break easily. Symptoms of metastasis ultimately depend on the location to which the cancer has spread.

     Reducing your risk of cancer
    You can reduce your risk of cancer by having a healthy lifestyle. Find out about stopping smoking, eating a healthy diet, keeping fit and drinking less alcohol.There are no proven ways to prevent cancer, but you can reduce your risk of getting it. Risk factors you can do something about include smoking and being overweight, and there are other things you can do to reduce your risk. 

    Healthy lifestyle
    Leading a healthy lifestyle can help lower your risk of developing certain cancers. You can do this by:
       • eating a healthy balanced diet
       • maintaining a healthy weight
       • drinking less alcohol
       • stopping smoking
       • protecting your skin from sun damage
    Eating a healthy balanced diet
    Stories about various foods and diets linked to preventing cancer are often in the news. This is because a lot of research is going on into diet and cancer. But it isn’t easy to study the link between diet and cancer because there are so many different factors involved, and cancer can take years to develop.
    No single food or supplement can prevent cancer from developing. Overall, research shows a link between eating certain groups of foods (rather than any specific foods, vitamins or nutrients) and a reduction in cancer risk.
    Eating a healthy balanced diet may lower your risk of developing cancer. A healthy balanced diet contains: 
      • plenty of fruit and vegetables: try to eat at least five portions a day
      • plenty of bread, rice, potatoes, pasta and other starchy foods: choose        wholegrain foods where possible as these contain more fibre
      • some meat, fish, eggs, beans and other non-dairy sources of protein
      • some milk and dairy foods
      • just a small amount of foods and drinks high in fat or sugars, such as cakes, crisps and biscuits 
    Eating a healthy balanced diet will help make sure your body gets all the nutrients it needs.

    Fibre
    Evidence consistently suggests that eating plenty of fibre can reduce the risk of bowel cancer. Diets high in fibre can help keep your bowel healthy and prevent constipation.
    Fibre-rich foods include wholegrain pasta, bread, breakfast cereals and rice. Pulses, fruit and vegetables are also good sources of fibre. 

    Red and processed meat
    Meat is a good source of protein, vitamins and minerals, such as iron and zinc. But evidence shows that there is probably a link between eating red and processed meat, and the risk of bowel cancer. People who eat a lot of these meats have a higher risk of getting bowel cancer than people who eat small amounts.
    Beef, pork and lamb are all red meat. Processed meats include bacon, sausages, salami and ham.
    If you eat more than 90 grams of red or processed meat a day (the equivalent of about three thin-cut slices of roast beef, lamb or pork, where each slice is about the size of half a piece of sliced bread), it is recommended that you cut down to 70 grams. You can find out more about eating red and processed meat.

    Beta-carotene supplements
    Beta-carotene, often found in antioxidant supplements, has been found to increase the risk of lung cancer developing in smokers and people who have been heavily exposed to asbestos at work. It is possible that taking large amounts of beta-carotene supplements would also increase the risk of cancer in other people.
    Maintaining a healthy weight
    In England, over 60% of the population is overweight or obese. Being overweight or obese can increase your risk of some cancers, such as:
      • bowel cancer
      • pancreatic cancer
      • oesophageal cancer
      • breast cancer if you are a woman who has been through the menopause
      • cancer of the womb (uterus)
      • kidney cancer
    Being a healthy weight can reduce your risk of developing cancer. You can find out whether you are a healthy weight by using the BMI healthy weight calculator.
    You can find information and tips on how to start losing weight.
    Drinking less alcohol
    Drinking alcohol is known to increase your risk of some cancers, including:
      • mouth cancer
      • pharynx and larynx cancer
      • oesophageal cancer
      • colorectal cancer in men
      • breast cancer
    It is probably a cause of other cancers such as colorectal cancer in women and liver cancer.
    Women shouldn't regularly drink more than 2-3 units of alcohol a day, and men shouldn't regularly drink more than 3-4 units a day.
    "Regularly" means every day or on most days of the week. Use the alcohol unit calculator to find out how many units are in different alcoholic drinks.

    Stopping smoking
    Lung cancer is responsible for around a quarter of cancer deaths in the Worlds and 90% of lung cancer cases are related to smoking.
    "Stopping smoking greatly cuts the risk of developing cancer . The earlier you stop, the greater the impact. But it's never too late to quit. People who quit smoking at 30 live nearly as long as non-smokers, and those who quit at 50 can still undo half the damage."
    There is support to help you stop smoking.
    Protect your skin from sun damage
    Taking care in the sun so that you don't get burned is important for preventing skin cancer. 

     • Spend time in the shade between 11am and 3pm.
     • Make sure you never burn.
     • Cover yourself up with a T-shirt, hat and sunglasses.
     • Take care not to let children get burned.
     • Use sunscreen with a sun protection factor (SPF) of at least 15.

    Keep an eye on any moles or freckles you have. If they change at all (for example, get bigger or begin bleeding), see your GP as this can be an early sign of cancer. The earlier skin cancer is caught, the easier it is to treat, so see your GP as soon as possible.
    We need sunlight on our skin so that our bodies can produce vitamin D, which is essential for healthy bones. Read aboutsunlight and vitamin D to find out how much sunlight you need.

    Know your body
    It's important to know your body and recognise any changes, such as lumps or unexplained bleeding, and to get advice about whether they might be serious. 

    Read more »
    Tweet Share Share Share Share Share

    11/07/2013


    Kidneys:The kidneys are the waste filtering and disposal system of the body. As much as 1/3 of all blood leaving the heart passes into the kidneys to be filtered before flowing to the rest of the body’s tissues. While a person could live with only one functioning kidney, our kidneys are vital organs; the loss of both kidneys would lead to a rapid accumulation of wastes and death within a few days

    Location:
    The kidneys are a pair of organs found along the posterior muscular wall of the abdominal cavity. The left kidney is located slightly more superior than the right kidney due to the larger size of the liver on the right side of the body. Unlike the other abdominal organs, the kidneys lie behind the peritoneum that lines the abdominal cavity and are thus considered to be retroperitoneal organs. The ribs and muscles of the back protect the kidneys from external damage. Adipose tissue known as perirenal fat surrounds the kidneys and acts as protective padding.
    Structure
    The kidneys are bean-shaped with the convex side of each organ located laterally and the concave side medial. The indentation on the concave side of the kidney, known as the renal hilus, provides a space for the renal artery, renal vein, and ureter to enter the kidney.
    A thin layer of fibrous connective tissue forms the renal capsule surrounding each kidney. The renal capsule provides a stiff outer shell to maintain the shape of the soft inner tissues.
    Deep to the renal capsule is the soft, dense, vascular renal cortex. Seven cone-shaped renal pyramids form the renal medulla deep to the renal cortex. The renal pyramids are aligned with their bases facing outward toward the renal cortex and their apexes point inward toward the center of the kidney.
    Each apex connects to a minor calyx, a small hollow tube that collects urine. The minor calyces merge to form 3 larger major calyces, which further merge to form the hollow renal pelvis at the center of the kidney. The renal pelvis exits the kidney at the renal hilus, where urine drains into the ureter
    The Nephron(Uriniferous tubules)
    Each kidney contains around 1 million individual nephrons, the kidneys’ microscopic functional units that filter blood to produce urine. The nephron is made of 2 main parts: 
    .                                                   
     Nephrone with
       glomerular

    The renal corpuscle and the renal tubule
    Responsible for     filtering the blood, our renal corpuscle is formed by the capillaries of the glomerulus and the glomerular capsule (also known as Bowman’s capsule). The glomerulus is a bundled network of capillaries that increases the surface area of blood in contact the blood vessel walls. Surrounding the glomerulus is the glomerular capsule, a cup-shaped double layer of simple squamous epithelium with a hollow space between the layers. Special epithelial cells known as podocytes form the layer of the glomerular capsule surrounding the capillaries of the glomerulus. Podocytes work with the endothelium of the capillaries to form a thin filter to separate urine from blood passing through the glomerulus. The outer layer of the glomerular capsule holds the urine separated from the blood within the capsule. At the far end of the glomerular capsule, opposite the glomerulus, is the mouth of the renal tubule.
    Filtration, Reabsorption, and Secretion:
    The kidneys filter blood as it passes through the capillaries that form the glomerulus. Blood pressure forces most of the blood plasma through the lining of the capillaries and into the glomerular capsule. Blood cells are too large to pass through the capillary lining and so remain within the capillaries along with some residual plasma. The filtered plasma, now known as tubular fluid, begins to flow out of the glomerular capsule and into the proximal convoluted tubule.

    At the same time, the concentrated blood that remains inside the capillaries of the glomerulus moves into the efferent arterioles and on to the peritubular capillaries surrounding the proximal convoluted tubule. Epithelial cells lining the tubule actively reabsorb valuable molecules of glucose, amino acids, and ions from the filtrate and deposit them back into the blood. These cells also absorb any waste products remaining in the blood (such as ammonia and creatinine) and secrete these chemicals into the filtrate. While these solutes are being exchanged, osmotic pressure pushes water from the dilute, hypotonic filtrate back into the concentrated, hypertonic blood.
    From the proximal convoluted tubule, the tubular fluid next enters the loop of Henle, where water and ions are reabsorbed. The descending limb of the loop of Henle is permeable to water and carries the filtrate deep into the medulla of the kidney. Tissues in the medulla surrounding the tubule contain a high concentration of ions and very little water compared to the filtrate. Osmotic pressure between the hypotonic filtrate and hypertonic medullary cells pushes water out of the filtrate and into the cells. The cells of the medulla return this water to the blood flowing through nearby capillaries.
    Filtrate next passes through the ascending limb of the loop of Henle as it exits the medulla. The tissues surrounding the ascending limb are not permeable to water but are permeable to ions. The filtrate is very concentrated after passing through the descending limb, so ions easily diffuse out of the filtrate and into the cells lining the ascending limb. These ions are returned to the blood flowing through nearby capillaries.
    Tubular fluid exiting the loop of Henle next passes through the distal convoluted tubule and the collecting duct of the nephron. These tubules continue to reabsorb small amounts of water and ions that are still left in the filtrate. The tissues surrounding the collecting duct actively absorb excess potassium and hydrogen ions from the nearby capillaries and secrete these excess ions as waste into the filtrate.
    When filtrate reaches the end of the collecting duct, almost all of the valuable nutrients, ions, and water have been returned to the blood supply while waste products and a small amount of water are left to form urine. The urine exits the collecting duct and joins with urine from other collecting ducts in the renal pelvis

     


    Read more »
    Tweet Share Share Share Share Share

    11/03/2013
    Minirin and Its Application
    Desmopressin (trade names: DDAVP, DesmoMelt, Stimate, Minirin) is a synthetic replacement for vasopressin, the hormone that reduces urine production. It may be taken nasally, intravenously, or as an oral or sublingual tablet. Physicians prescribe desmopressin most frequently for treatment of
    Desmopressin Acetate
    diabetes insipidus, bedwetting, or nocturia
    Desmopressin (1-desamino-8-D-arginine vasopressin) is a modified form of the normal human hormone arginine vasopressin, a peptide containing nine amino acids.Compared to vasopressin, desmopressin's first amino acid has been deaminated, and the arginine at the eighth position is in the dextro rather than the levo form.


    Mode of action: Desmopressin works by limiting the amount of water that is eliminated in the urine.Desmopressin binds to V2 receptors in renal collecting ducts, increasing water reabsorption. It also show its action in release of von Willebrand factor from endothelial cells by acting on the V2 receptor.
    Desmopressin is degraded more slowly than recombinant vasopressin, and requires less frequent administration. In addition, it has little effect on blood pressure, while vasopressin may cause arterial hypertension. Vasopressin stimulates the release of ACTH, which indirectly increases responsiveness of alpha-1 receptor in blood vessel smooth muscle, increasing vessel tone and blood pressure. Desmopressin does not stimultate ACTH release, and therefore does not directly raise blood pressure.

     Clinical uses: 

    1.Nocturnal Enuresis: Doctors prescribe desmopressin frequently for treatment. It is usually in the form of desmopressin acetate, DDAVP. Patients taking DDAVP are 4.5 times more likely to sleep without disruption than with placebo. Examples of these situations are overnight camp and sleepovers.US drug regulators banned treating bedwetting with desmopressin nasal sprays after two patients died and 59 other patients suffered seizures. The patients were using desmopressin when they developed hyponatremia, an imbalance of the body's sodium levels.

    FDA regulators said that desmopressin tablets could still be considered safe for nocturnal enuresis treatment, as long as the patient was otherwise healthy. Patients must stop taking desmopressin if they become sick and have severe vomiting and diarrhea, fever, the flu, or severe cold. They should also be very cautious during hot weather or following strenuous exercise that may make them thirsty.A healthy body needs to maintain a balance of water and salt (sodium). If sodium levels become too low (hyponatremia) – either as a result of increased water take-up or reduced salt levels – a person may have seizures and, in extreme cases, may die

    2. Coagulation disorders:  Desmopressin can be used to promote the release of von Willebrand factor (with subsequent increase in factor VIII survival secondary to vWF complexing) in patients with coagulation disorders such as von Willebrand disease, mild hemophilia A (factor VIII deficiency), and thrombocytopenia. It can be used with uremic induced platelet dysfunction. It is not effective in the treatment of hemophilia B (factor IX deficiency), severe hemophilia A, or von Willebrand 2B.


    3.Diabetes insipidus:  Desmopressin is used in the treatment of central diabetes insipidus (DI)to replace endogenous ADH that is missing in the central nervous system type of this disorder (decreased production of ADH from the posterior pituitary). It is also used in the diagnostic workup for diabetes insipidus, in order to distinguish central from nephrogenic DI.

    In this way the Minirin is used to treat these types of disorder In different amount like minirin 0.1,minirin 0.25 etc


    Note : This is Not a Medical Advice , Please Consult your Physician Before Using it . We Will Not be Responsible For any Disorders Caused Due to Using this Drugs

     

    Read more »
    Subscribe to: Posts (Atom)

    Contact Form

    Name

    Email *

    Message *

    DAINIK UPDATE © 2015. All Rights Reserved.
    Powered by Blogger.